Processing determines more than shape. It changes microstructure, defects, residual stress, phase distribution and surface condition, which means two components with the same nominal composition can perform very differently.
Heat treatment
Annealing, normalizing, quenching, tempering, solution treatment and aging are used to control phases and precipitates in metals. The thermal cycle, cooling rate and section thickness all matter.
Mechanical processing
Rolling, forging, extrusion and drawing change geometry while also altering grain flow, texture and work hardening. Hot working and cold working produce different combinations of strength, ductility and residual stress.
Powder metallurgy
Powder routes compact and sinter particles into near-net shapes. They are important for hard metals, porous parts, magnets and materials that are difficult to process conventionally.
Additive manufacturing
Layer-by-layer processes offer geometry freedom but introduce distinct thermal histories, anisotropy, porosity and qualification challenges. Post-processing and inspection are often essential.
Semiconductor fabrication
Electronic materials use tightly controlled deposition, oxidation, lithography, etching, doping and cleaning steps. At small scales, contamination and interface control become as important as bulk composition.
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